A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom

by

ANDREW DICKSON WHITE
LL.D. (Yale), L.H.D. (Columbia), PH.DR. (Jena)
Late President and Professor of History at Cornell University

Two Volumes Combined

New York
D. Appleton and Company
1898

Copyright, 1896
By D. Appleton and Company.

To the Memory of
EZRA CORNELL
I Dedicate this Book.

Thoughts that great hearts once broke for, we
Breathe cheaply in the common air. --- LOWELL

Dicipulus est prioris posterior dies. --- PUBLIUS SYRUS

Truth is the daughter of Time. --- BACON

The Truth shall make you free. --- ST. JOHN, viii, 32.

CONTENTS

Preface to the Hypertext

Introduction

CHAPTER I. FROM CREATION TO EVOLUTION.

1. The Visible Universe.
   • Ancient and medieval views regarding the manner of creation
   • Regarding the matter of creation
   • Regarding the time of creation
   • Regarding the date of creation
   • Regarding the Creator
   • Regarding light and darkness
   • Rise of the conception of an evolution: among the Chaldeans, the Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans
   • Its survival through the Middle Ages, despite the disfavour of the Church
   • Its development in modern times. --- The nebular hypothesis and its struggle with theology
   • The idea of evolution at last victorious
   • Our sacred books themselves an illustration of its truth
   • The true reconciliation of Science and Theology
2. Theological Teachings Regarding the Animals and Man.
   • Ancient and medieval representations of the creation of man
   • Literal acceptance of the book of Genesis by the Christian fathers
   • By the Reformers
   • By modern theologians, Catholic and Protestant
   • Theological reasoning as to the divisions of the animal kingdom
   • The Physiologus, the Bestiaries, the Exempila
   • Beginnings of sceptical observation
   • Development of a scientific method in the study of Nature
   • Breaking down of the theological theory of creation
3. Theological and Scientific Theories of an Evolution in Animated Nature.
   • Ideas of evolution among the ancients
   • In the early Church
   • In the medieval Church
   • Development of these ideas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries
   • The work of De Maillet
   • Of Linneus
   • Of Buffon
   • Contributions to the theory of evolution at the close of the eighteenth century
   • The work of Treviranus and Lamarck
   • Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier
   • Development of the theory up to the middle of the nineteenth century
   • The contributions of Darwin and Wallace
   • The opposition of Agassiz
4. The Final Effort of Theology.
   • Attacks on Darwin and his theories in England
   • In America
   • Formation of sacro-scientific organizations to combat the theory of evolution
   • The attack in France
   • In Germany
   • Conversion of Lyell to the theory of evolution
   • The attack on Darwin's Descent of Man
   • Difference between this and the former attack
   • Hostility to Darwinism in America
   • Change in the tone of the controversy. --- Attempts at compromise
   • Dying-out of opposition to evolution
   • Last outbursts of theological hostility
   • Final victory of evolution

CHAPTER II. GEOGRAPHY

1. The Form of the Earth.
   • Primitive conception of the earth as flat
   • In Chaldea and Egypt
   • In Persia
   • Among the Hebrews
   • Evolution, among the Greeks, of the idea of its sphericity
   • Opposition of the early Church
   • Evolution of a sacred theory, drawn from the Bible
   • Its completion by Cosmas Indicopleustes
   • Its influence on Christian thought
   • Survival of the idea of the earth's sphericity --- its acceptance by Isidore and Bede
   • Its struggle and final victory
2. The Delineation of the Earth.
   • Belief of every ancient people that its own central place was the centre of the earth
   • Hebrew conviction that the earth's centre was at Jerusalem
   • Acceptance of this view by Christianity
   • Influence of other Hebrew conceptions --- Gog and Magog, the ``four winds,'' the waters ``on an heap''
3. The Inhabitants of the Earth.
   • The idea of antipodes
   • Its opposition by the Christian Church --- Gregory Nazianzen, Lactantius, Basil, Ambrose, Augustine, Procopius of Gaza, Cosmas, Isidore
   • Virgil of Salzburg's assertion of it in the eighth century
   • Its revival by William of Conches and Albert the Great in the thirteenth
   • Surrender of it by Nicolas d'Oresme
   • Fate of Peter of Abano and Cecco d' Ascoli
   • Timidity of Pierre d'Ailly and Tostatus
   • Theological hindrance of Columbus
   • Pope Alexander VI's demarcation line
   • Cautious conservatism.of Gregory Reysch
   • Magellan and the victory of science
4. The Size of the Earth.
   • Scientific attempts at measuring the Earth
   • The sacred solution of the problem
   • Fortunate influence of the blunder upon Columbus
5. The Character of the Earth's Surface.
   • Servetus and the charge of denying the fertility of Judea
   • Contrast between the theological and the religious spirit in their effects on science

CHAPTER III. ASTRONOMY.

1. The Old Sacred Theory of the Universe.
   • The early Church's conviction of the uselessness of astronomy
   • The growth of a sacred theory --- Origen, the Gnostics, Philastrius, Cosmas, Isidore
   • The geocentric, or Ptolemaic, theory its origin, and its acceptance by the Christian world
   • Development of the new sacred system of astronomy --- the pseudo-Dionysius, Peter Lombard. Thomas Aquinas
   • Its popularization by Dante
   • Its details
   • Its persistence to modern times
2. The Heliocentric Theory.
   • Its rise among the Greeks --- Pythagoras, Philolaus, Aristarchus
   • Its suppression by the charge of blasphemy
   • Its loss from sight for six hundred Years, then for a thousand
   • Its revival by Nicholas de Cusa and Nicholas Copernicus
   • Its toleration as a hypothesis
   • Its prohibition as soon as Galileo teaches it as a truth
   • Consequent timidity of scholars --- Acosta, Apian
   • Protestantism not less zealous in opposition than Catholicism --- Luther, Melanchthon, Calvin, Turretin
   • This opposition especially persistent in England --- Hutchinson, Pike, Horne, Horsley, Forbes, Owen, Wesley
   • Resulting interferences with freedom of teaching
   • Giordano Bruno's boldness and his fate
   • The truth demonstrated by the telescope of Galileo
3. The War upon Galileo.
   • Concentration of the war on this new champion
   • The first attack
   • Fresh attacks --- Elci, Busaeus, Caccini, Lorini, Bellarmin
   • Use of epithets
   • Attempts to entrap Galileo
   • His summons before the Inquisition at Rome
   • The injunction to silence, and the condemnation of the theory of the earth's motion,
   • The work of Copernicus placed on the Index
   • Galileo's seclusion
   • Renewed attacks upon Galileo --- Inchofer, Fromundus
4. Victory of the Church over Galileo
   • Publication of his Dialogo
   • Hostility of Pope Urban VIII
   • Galileo's second trial by the Inquisition
   • His abjuration
   • Later persecution of him
   • Measures to complete the destruction of the Copernican theory
   • Persecution of Galileo's memory
   • Protestant hostility to the new astronomy and its champions
5. Results of the Victory over Galileo.
   • Rejoicings of churchmen over the victory
   • The silencing of Descartes
   • Persecution of Campanella and of Kepler
   • Persistence and victory of science
   • Dilemma of the theologians
   • Vain attempts to postpone the surrender
6. The Retreat of the Church after its Victory over Galileo.
   • The easy path for the Protestant theologians
   • The difficulties of the older Church. --- The papal infallibility fully committed against the Copernican theory
   • Attempts at evasion --- first plea: that Galileo was condemned not for affirming the earth's motion, but for supporting it from Scripture
   • Its easy refutation
   • Second plea: that he was condemned not for heresy, but for contumacy
   • Folly of this assertion
   • Third plea: that it was all a quarrel between Aristotelian professors and those favouring the experimental method
   • Fourth plea: that the condemnation of Galileo was ``provisory''
   • Fifth plea: that he was no more a victim of Catholics than of Protestants
   • Efforts to blacken Galileo's character
   • Efforts to suppress the documents of his trial
   • Their fruitlessness
   • Sixth plea: that the popes as popes had never condemned his theory
   • Its confutation from their own mouths
   • Abandonment of the contention by honest Catholics
   • Two efforts at compromise --- Newman, De Bonald
   • Effect of all this on thinking men
   • The fault not in Catholicism more than in Protestantism --- not in religion, but in theology

CHAPTER IV. FROM ``SIGNS AND WONDERS'' TO LAW IN THE HEAVENS.

1. The Theological View.
   • Early beliefs as to comets, meteors, and eclipses
   • Their inheritance by Jews and Christians
   • The belief regarding comets especially harmful as a source of superstitious terror
   • Its transmission through the Middle Ages
   • Its culmination under Pope Calixtus III
   • Beginnings of scepticism --- Coperuicus, Paracelsus, Scaliger
   • Firmness of theologians, Catholic and Protestant, in its support
2. Theological Efforts to Crush the Scientific View.
   • The effort through the universities. --- The effort through the pulpits
   • Heerbrand at Tubingen and Dieterich at Marburg
   • Maestlin at Heidelberg
   • Buttner, Vossius, Torreblanca, Fromundus
   • Father Augustin de Angelis at Rome
   • Reinzer at Linz
   • Celichius at Magdeburg
   • Conrad Dieterich's sermon at Ulm
   • Erni and others in Switzerland
   • Comet doggerel
   • Echoes from New England --- Danforth, Morton, Increase Mather
3. The Invasion of Scepticism.
   • Rationalism of Cotton Mather, and its cause
   • Blaise de Vigenere
   • Erastus
   • Bekker, Lubienitzky, Pierre Petit
   • Bayle
   • Fontenelle
   • The scientific movement beneath all this
4. Theological Efforts at Compromise. --- The Final Victory of Science.
   • The admission that some comets are supralunar
   • Difference between scientific and theological reasoning
   • Development of the reasoning of Tycho and Kepler --- Cassini, Hevel, Doerfel, Bernouilli, Newton
   • Completion of the victory by Halley and Clairaut
   • Survivals of the superstition --- Joseph de Maistre, Forster
   • Arago's statistics
   • The theories of Whiston and Burnet, and their influence in Germany
   • The superstition ended in America by the lectures of Winthrop
   • Helpful influence of John Wesley
   • Effects of the victory

CHAPTER V. FROM GENESIS TO GEOLOGY.

1. Growth of Theological Explanations.
   • Germs of geological truth among the Greeks and Romans
   • Attitude of the Church toward science
   • Geological theories of the early theologians
   • Attitude of the schoolmen
   • Contributions of the Arabian schools
   • Theories of the earlier Protestants
   • Influence of the revival of learning
2. Efforts to Suppress the Scientific View.
   • Revival of scientific methods
   • Buffon and the Sorbonne
   • Beringer's treatise on fossils
   • Protestant opposition to the new geology --- the works of Burnet, Whiston, Wesley, Clark, Watson, Arnold, Cockburn, and others
3. The First Great Effort of Compromise, based on the Flood of Noah.
   • The theory that fossils were produced by the Deluge
   • Its acceptance by both Catholics and Protestants --- Luther, Calmet Burnet, Whiston, Woodward, Mazurier, Torrubia, Increase Mather
   • Scheuchzer
   • Voltaire's theory of fossils
   • Vain efforts of enlightened churchmen in behalf of the scientific view
   • Steady progress of science --- the work of Cuvier and Brongniart
   • Granvile Penn's opposition
   • The defection of Buckland and Lyell to the scientific side
   • Surrender of the theologians
   • Remnants of the old belief
   • Death-blow given to the traditional theory of the Deluge by the discovery of the Chaldean accounts
   • Results of the theological opposition to science
4. Final Efforts at Compromise --- The Victory of Science Complete.
   • Efforts of Carl von Raumer, Wagner, and others
   • The new testimony of the caves and beds of drift as to the antiquity of man
   • Gosse's effort to save the literal interpretation of Genesis
   • Efforts of Continental theologians
   • Gladstone's attempt at a compromise
   • Its demolition by Huxley
   • By Canon Driver
   • Dean Stanley on the reconciliation of Science and Scripture

CHAPTER VI. THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN, EGYPTOLOGY, AND ASSYRIOLOGY.

1. The Sacred Chronology.
   • Two fields in which Science has gained a definite victory over Theology
   • Opinious of the Church fathers on the antiquity of man
   • The chronology of Isidore
   • Of Bede
   • Of the medieval Jewish scholars
   • The views of the Reformers on the antiquity of man
   • Of the Roman Church
   • Of Archbishop Usher
   • Influence of Egyptology on the belief in man's antiquity
   • La Peyrere's theory of the Pre-Adamites
   • Opposition in England to the new chronology
2. The New Chronology.
   • Influence of the new science of Egyptology on biblical chronology
   • Manetho's history of Egypt and the new chronology derived from it
   • Evidence of the antiquity of man furnished by the monuments of Egypt
   • By her art
   • By her science
   • By other elements of civilization
   • By the remains found in the bed of the Nile
   • Evidence furnished by the study of Assyriology

CHAPTER VII. THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY.

1. The Thunder-stones.
   • Early beliefs regarding ``thunder-stones''
   • Theories of Mercati and Tollius regarding them
   • Their identification with the implements of prehistoric man
   • Remains of man found in caverns
   • Unfavourable influence on scientific activity of the political conditions of the early part of the nineteenth century
   • Change effected by the French Revolution of to
   • Rallying of the reactionary clerical influence against science
2. The Flint Weapons and Implements.
   • Boucher de Perthes's contributions to the knowledge of prehistoric man
   • His conclusions confirmed by Lyell and others
   • Cave explorations of Lartet and Christy
   • Evidence of man's existence furnished by rude carvings
   • Cave explorations in the British Islands
   • Evidence of man's existence in the Drift period
   • In the early Quaternary and in the Tertiary periods

CHAPTER VIII. THE ``FALL OF MAN'' AND ANTHROPOLOGY.

• The two antagonistic views regarding the life of man on the earth
• The theory of ``the Fall'' among ancient peoples
• Inheritance of this view by the Christian Church
• Appearance among the Greeks and Romans of the theory of a rise of man
• Its disappearance during the Middle Ages
• Its development since the seventeenth century
• The first blow at the doctrine of ``the Fall'' comes from geology
• Influence of anthropology on the belief in this doctrine
• The finding of human skulls in Quaternary deposits
• Their significance
• Results obtained from the comparative study of the remains of human handiwork
• Discovery of human remains in shell-heaps on the shores of the Baltic Sea
• In peat-beds
• The lake-dwellers
• Indications of the upward direction of man's development
• Mr. Southall's attack on the theory of man's antiquity
• An answer to it
• Discovery of prehistoric human remains in Egypt
• Hamard's attack on the new scientific conclusions
• The survival of prehistoric implements in religious rites
• Strength of the argument against the theory of ``the Fall of Man''

CHAPTER IX. THE ``FALL OF MAN'' AND ETHNOLOGY.

• The beginnings of the science of Comparative Ethnology
• Its testimony to the upward tendency of man from low beginning
• Theological efforts to break its force --- De Maistre and De Bonald Whately's attempt
• The attempt of the Duke of Argyll
• Evidence of man's upward tendency derived from Comparative Philology
• From Comparative Literature and Folklore
• From Comparative Ethnography
• From Biology

CHAPTER X. THE ``FALL OF MAN'' AND HISTORY.

• Proof of progress given by the history of art
• Proofs from general history
• Development of civilization even under unfavourable circumstances to advancement even through catastrophes and the decay of civilizations
• Progress not confined to man's material condition
• Theological struggle against the new scientific view
• Persecution of Prof. Winchell
• Of Dr. Woodrow
• Other interferences with freedom of teaching
• The great harm thus done to religion
• Rise of a better spirit
• The service rendered to religion by Anthropology

CHAPTER XI. FROM ``THE PRINCE OF THE POWER OF THE AIR'' TO METEOROLOGY.

1. Growth of a Theological Theory.
   • The beliefs of classical antiquity regarding storms, thunder, and lightning
   • Development of a sacred science of meteorology by the fathers of the Church
   • Theories of Cosmas Indicopleustes
   • Of Isidore of Seville
   • Of Bede
   • Of Rabanus Maurus
   • Rational views of Honorius of Autun
   • Orthodox theories of John of San Geminiano
   • Attempt of Albert the Great to reconcile the speculations of Aristotle with the theological views
   • The monkish encyclopedists
   • Theories regarding the rainbow and the causes of storms
   • Meteorological phenomena attributed to the Almighty
2. Diabolical Agency in Storms.
   • Meteorological phenomena attributed to the devil --- ``the prince of the power of the air''
   • Propagation of this belief by the medieval theologians
   • Its transmission to both Catholics and Protestants --- Eck, Luther
   • The great work of Delrio
   • Guacci's Compendium
   • The employment of prayer against ``the powers of the air''
   • Of exorcisms
   • Of fetiches and processions
   • Of consecrated church bells
3. The Agency of Witches.
   • The fearful results of the witch superstition
   • Its growth out of the doctrine of evil agency in atmospheric phenomena
   • Archbishop Agobard's futile attempt to dispel it
   • Its sanction by the popes
   • Its support by confessions extracted by torture
   • Part taken in the persecution by Dominicans and Jesuits
   • Opponents of the witch theory --- Pomponatius, Paracelsus, Agrippa of Nettesheim
   • Jean Bodin's defence of the superstition
   • Fate of Cornelius Loos
   • Of Dietrich Flade
   • Efforts of Spee to stem the persecution
   • His posthumous influence
   • Upholders of the orthodox view --- Bishop Binsfeld, Remigius
   • Vain protests of Wier
   • Persecution of Bekker for opposing the popular belief
   • Effect of the Reformation in deepening the superstition
   • The persecution in Great Britain and America
   • Development of a scientific view of the heavens
   • Final efforts to revive the old belief
4. Franklin's Lightning-Rod.
   • Franklin's experiments witlh the kite
   • Their effect on the old belief
   • Efforts at compromise between the scientific and theological theories
   • Successful use of the lightning-rod
   • Religious scruples against it in America
   • In England
   • In Austria
   • In Italy
   • Victory of the scientific theory
   • This victory exemplified in the case of the church of the monastery of Lerins
   • In the case of Dr. Moorhouse
   • In the case of the Missouri droughts

CHAPTER XII. FROM MAGIC TO CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. The Supremacy of Magic.
   • Primitive tendency to belief in magic
   • The Greek conception of natural laws
   • Influence of Plato and Aristotle on the growth of science
   • Effect of the establishment of Christianity on the development of the physical sciences
   • The revival of thought in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
   • Albert the Great
   • Vincent of Beauvais
   • Thomas Aquinas
   • Roger Bacon's beginning of the experimental method brought to nought
   • The belief that science is futile gives place to the belief that it is dangerous
   • The two kinds of magic
   • Rarity of persecution for magic before the Christian era
   • The Christian theory of devils
   • Constantine's laws against magic
   • Increasing terror of magic and witchcraft
   • Papal enactments against them
   • Persistence of the belief in magic
   • Its effect on the development of science
   • Roger Bacon
   • Opposition of secular rulers to science
   • John Baptist Porta
   • The opposition to scientific societies in italy
   • In England
   • The effort to turn all thought from science to religion
   • The development of mystic theology
   • Its harmful influence on science
   • Mixture of theological with scientific speculation
   • This shown in the case of Melanchthon
   • In that of Francis Bacon
   • Theological theory of gases
   • Growth of a scientific theory
   • Basil Valentine and his contributions to chemistry
   • Triumph of the scientific theory
2. The Triumph of Chemistry and Physics.
   • New epoch in chemistry begun by Boyle
   • Attitude of the mob toward science
   • Effect on science of the reaction following the French Revolution:
   • Development of chemistry since the middle of the nineteenth century
   • Development of physics
   • Modern opposition to science in Catholic countries
   • Attack on scientific education in France
   • In England
   • In Prussia
   • Revolt against the subordination of education to science
   • Effect of the International Exhibition of ii at London
   • Of the endowment of State colleges in America by the Morrill Act of 1862
   • The results to religion

CHAPTER XIII. FROM MIRACLES TO MEDICINE.

1. THE EARLY AND SACRED THEORIES OF DISEASE.
   • Naturalness of the idea of supernatural intervention in causing and curing disease
   • Prevalence of this idea in ancient civilizations
   • Beginnings of a scientific theory of medicine
   • The twofold influence of Christianity on the healing art
2. GROWTH OF LEGENDS OF HEALING. --- THE LIFE OF XAVIER AS A TYPICAL EXAMPLE.
   • Growth of legends of miracles about the lives of great benefactors of humanity
   • Sketch of Xavier's career
   • Absence of miraculous accounts in his writings and those of his contemporaries
   • Direct evidence that Xavier wrought no miracles
   • Growth of legends of miracles as shown in the early biographies of him
   • As shown in the canonization proceedings
   • Naturalness of these legends
3. THE MEDIAEVAL MIRACLES OF HEALING CHECK MEDICAL SCIENCE.
   • Character of the testimony regarding miracles
   • Connection of mediaeval with pagan miracles
   • Their basis of fact
   • Various kinds of miraculous cures
   • Atmosphere of supernaturalism thrown about all cures
   • Influence of this atmosphere on medical science
4. THE ATTRIBUTION OF DISEASE TO SATANIC INFLUENCE. --- ``PASTORAL MEDICINE'' CHECKS SCIENTIFIC EFFORT.
   • Theological theory as to the cause of disease
   • Influence of self-interest on ``pastoral medicine''
   • Development of fetichism at Cologne and elsewhere
   • Other developments of fetich cure
5. THEOLOGICAL OPPOSITION TO ANATOMICAL STUDIES.
   • Medieval belief in the unlawfulness of meddling with the bodies of the dead
   • Dissection objected to on the ground that ``the Church abhors the shedding of blood''
   • The decree of Boniface VIII and its results
6. NEW BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE.
   • Galen
   • Scanty development of medical science in the Church
   • Among Jews and Mohammedans
   • Promotion of medical science by various Christian laymen of the Middle Ages
   • By rare men of science
   • By various ecclesiastics
7. THEOLOGICAL DISCOURAGEMENT OF MEDICINE.
   • Opposition to seeking cure from disease by natural means
   • Requirement of ecclesiastical advice before undertaking medical treatment
   • Charge of magic and Mohammedanism against men of science
   • Effect of ecclesiastical opposition to medicine
   • The doctrine of signatures
   • The doctrine of exorcism
   • Theological opposition to surgery
   • Development of miracle and fetich cures
   • Fashion in pious cures
   • Medicinal properties of sacred places
   • Theological argument in favour of miraculous cures
   • Prejudice against Jewish physicians
8. FETICH CURES UNDER PROTESTANTISM. --- THE ROYAL TOUCH.
   • Luther's theory of disease
   • The royal touch
   • Cures wrought by Charles II
   • By James II
   • By William III
   • By Queen Anne
   • By Louis XIV
   • Universal acceptance of these miracles
9. THE SCIENTIFIC STRUGGLE FOR ANATOMY.
   • Occasional encouragement of medical science in the Middle Ages
   • New impulse given by the revival of learning and the age of discovery
   • Paracelsus and Mundinus
   • Vesalius, the founder of the modem science of anatomy. --- His career and fate
10. THEOLOGICAL OPPOSITION TO INOCULATION, VACCINATION, AND THE USE OF ANÆSTHETICS.
    • Theological opposition to inoculation in Europe
    • In America
    • Theological opposition to vaccination
    • Recent hostility to vaccination in England
    • In Canada, during the smallpox epidemic
    • Theological opposition to the use of cocaine
    • To the use of quinine
    • Theological opposition to the use of anesthetics
11. FINAL BREAKING AWAY OF THE THEOLOGICAL THEORY IN MEDICINE.
    • Changes incorporated in the American Book of Common Prayer
    • Effect on the theological view of the growing knowledge of the relation between imagination and medicine
    • Effect of the discoveries in hypnotism
    • In bacteriology
    • Relation between ascertained truth and the ``ages of faith''

CHAPTER XIV. FROM FETICH TO HYGIENE.

1. THE THEOLOGICAL VIEW OF EPIDEMICS AND SANITATION.
   • The recurrence of great pestilences
   • Their early ascription to the wrath or malice of unseen powers
   • Their real cause want of hygienic precaution
   • Theological apotheosis of filth
   • Sanction given to the sacred theory of pestilence by Pope Gregory the Great
   • Modes of propitiating the higher powers
   • Modes of thwarting the powers of evil
   • Persecution of the Jews as Satan's emissaries
   • Persecution of witches as Satan's emissaries
   • Case of the Untori at Milan
   • New developments of fetichism. --- The blood of St. Januarius at Naples
   • Appearance of better methods in Italy. --- In Spain
2. GRADUAL DECAY OF THEOLOGICAL VIEWS REGARDING SANITATION.
   • Comparative freedom of England from persecutions for plague-bringing, in spite of her wretched sanitary condition
   • Aid sought mainly through church services
   • Effects of the great fire in London
   • The jail fever
   • The work of John Howard
   • Plagues in the American colonies
   • In France. --- The great plague at Marseilles
   • Persistence of the old methods in Austria
   • In Scotland
3. THE TRIUMPH OF SANITARY SCIENCE.
   • Difficulty of reconciling the theological theory of pestilences with accumulating facts
   • Curious approaches to a right theory
   • The law governing the relation of theology to disease
   • Recent victories of hygiene in all countries
   • In England. --- -Chadwick and his fellows
   • In France
4. THE RELATION OF SANITARY SCIENCE TO RELIGION.
   • The process of sanitary science not at the cost of religion
   • Illustration from the policy of Napoleon III in France
   • Effect of proper sanitation on epidemics in the United States
   • Change in the attitude of the Church toward the cause and cure of pestilence

CHAPTER XV. FROM ``DEMONIACAL POSSESSION'' TO INSANITY.

1. THEOLOGICAL IDEAS OF LUNACY AND ITS TREATMENT.
   • The struggle for the scientific treatment of the insane
   • The primitive ascription of insanity to evil spirits
   • Better Greek and Roman theories --- madness a disease
   • The Christian Church accepts the demoniacal theory of insanity
   • Yet for a time uses mild methods for the insane
   • Growth of the practice of punishing the indwelling demon
   • Two sources whence better things might have been hoped. --- The reasons of their futility
   • The growth of exorcism
   • Use of whipping and torture
   • The part of art and literature in making vivid to the common mind the idea of diabolic activity
   • The effects of religious processions as a cure for mental disease
   • Exorcism of animals possessed of demons
   • Belief in the transformation of human beings into animals
   • The doctrine of demoniacal possession in the Reformed Church
2. BEGINNINGS OF A HEALTHFUL SCEPTICISM.
   • Rivalry between Catholics and Protestants in the casting out of devils
   • Increased belief in witchcraft during the period following the
   • Reformation
   • Increase of insanity during the witch persecutions
   • Attitude of physicians toward witchcraft
   • Religious hallucinations of the insane
   • Theories as to the modes of diabolic entrance into the possessed
   • Influence of monastic life on the development of insanity
   • Protests against the theological view of insanity --- Wier, Montaigue Bekker
   • Last struggles of the old superstition
3. THE FINAL STRUGGLE AND VICTORY OF SCIENCE. --- PINEL AND TUKE.
   • Influence of French philosophy on the belief in demoniacal possession
   • Reactionary influence of John Wesley
   • Progress of scientific ideas in Prussia
   • In Austria
   • In America
   • In South Germany
   • General indifference toward the sufferings of madmen
   • The beginnings of a more humane treatment
   • Jean Baptiste Pinel
   • Improvement in the treatment of the insane in England. --- William Tuke
   • The place of Pinel and Tuke in history

CHAPTER XVI. FROM DIABOLISM TO HYSTERIA.

1. THE EPIDEMICS OF ``POSSESSION.''
   • Survival of the belief in diabolic activity as the cause of such epidemics
   • Epidemics of hysteria in classical times
   • In the Middle Ages
   • The dancing mania
   • Inability of science during the fifteenth century to cope with such diseases
   • Cases of possession brought within the scope of medical research during the sixteenth century
   • Dying-out of this form of mental disease in northern Europe
   • In Italy
   • Epidemics of hysteria in the convents
   • The case of Martha Brossier
   • Revival in France of belief in diabolic influence
   • The Ursulines of Loudun and Urbain Grandier
   • Possession among the Huguenots
   • In New England. --- The Salem witch persecution
   • At Paris. --- Alleged miracles at the grave of Archdeacon Paris
   • In Germany. --- Case of Maria Renata Sanger
   • More recent outbreaks
2. BEGINNINGS OF HELPFUL SCEPTICISM.
   • Outbreaks of hysteria in factories and hospitals
   • In places of religious excitement
   • The case at Morzine
   • Similar cases among Protestants and in Africa
3. THEOLOGICAL ``RESTATEMENTS.'' --- FINAL TRIUMPH OF THE SCIENTIFIC VIEW AND METHODS.
   • Successful dealings of medical science with mental diseases
   • Attempts to give a scientific turn to the theory of diabolic agency in disease
   • Last great demonstration of the old belief in England
   • Final triumph of science in the latter half of the present century
   • Last echoes of the old belief

CHAPTER XVII. FROM BABEL TO COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.

1. THE SACRED THEORY IN ITS FIRST FORM.
   • Difference of the history of Comparative Philology from that of other sciences as regards the attitude of theologians
   • Curiosity of early man regarding the origin, the primitive form, and the diversity of language
   • The Hebrew answer to these questions
   • The legend of the Tower of Babel
   • The real reason for the building of towers by the Chaldeans and the causes of their ruin
   • Other legends of a confusion of tongues
   • Influence upon Christendom of the Hebrew legends
   • Lucretius's theory of the origin of language
   • The teachings of the Church fathers on this subject
   • The controversy as to the divine origin of the Hebrew vowel points
   • Attitude of the reformers toward this question
   • Of Catholic scholars. --- Marini
   • Capellus and his adversaries
   • The treatise of Danzius
2. THE SACRED THEORY OF LANGUAGE IN ITS SECOND FORM.
   • Theological theory that Hebrew was the primitive tongue, divinely revealed
   • This theory supported by all Christian scholars until the beginning of the eighteenth century
   • Dissent of Prideaux and Cotton Mather
   • Apparent strength of the sacred theory of language
3. BREAKING DOWN OF THE THEOLOGICAL VIEW.
   • Reason for the Church's ready acceptance of the conclusions of comparative philology
   • Beginnings of a scientific theory of language
   • Hottinger
   • Leibnitz
   • The collections of Catharine the Great, of Hervas, and of Adelung
   • Chaotic period in philology between Leibnitz and the beginning of the study of Sanskrit
   • Illustration from the successive editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica
4. TRIUMPH OF THE NEW SCIENCE.
   • Effect of the discovery of Sanskrit on the old theory
   • Attempts to discredit the new learning
   • General acceptance of the new theory
   • Destruction of the belief that all created things were first named by Adam
   • Of the belief in the divine origin of letters
   • Attempts in England to support the old theory of language
   • Progress of philological science in France
   • In Germany
   • In Great Britain
   • Recent absurd attempts to prove Hebrew the primitive tongue
5. SUMMARY.
   • Gradual disappearance of the old theories regarding the origin of speech and writing
   • Full acceptance of the new theories by all Christian scholars
   • The result to religion, and to the Bible

CHAPTER XVIII. FROM THE DEAD SEA LEGENDS TO COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY.

1. THE GROWTH OF EXPLANATORY TRANSFORMATION MYTHS.
   • Growth of myths to account for remarkable appearances in Nature --- mountains. rocks, curiously marked stones, fossils, products of volcanicaction
   • Myths of the transformation of living beings into natural objects
   • Development of the science of Comparative Mythology
2. MEDIÆVAL GROWTH OF THE DEAD SEA LEGENDS.
   • Description of the Dead Sea
   • Impression made by its peculiar features on the early dwellers in Palestine
   • Reasons for selecting the Dead Sea myths for study
   • Naturalness of the growth of legend regarding the salt region of Usdum
   • Universal belief in these legends
   • Concurrent testimony of early and mediaeval writers, Jewish and Christian, respecting the existence of Lot's wife as a ``pillar of salt,'' and of the other wonders of the Dead Sea
   • Discrepancies in the various accounts and theological explanations of them
   • Theological arguments respecting the statue of Lot's wife
   • Growth of the legend in the sixteenth century
3. POST-REFORMATION CULMINATION OF THE DEAD SEA LEGENDS. --- BEGINNINGS OF A HEALTHFUL SCEPTICISM.
   • Popularization of the older legends at the Reformation
   • Growth of new myths among scholars
   • Signs of scepticism among travellers near the end of the sixteenth century
   • Effort of Quaresmio to check this tendency
   • Of Eugene Roger
   • Of Wedelius
   • Influence of these teachings
   • Renewed scepticism --- the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
   • Efforts of Briemle and Masius in support of the old myths
   • Their influence
   • The travels of Mariti and of Volney
   • Influence of scientific thought on the Dead Sea legends during the eighteenth century
   • Reactionary efforts of Chateaubriand
   • Investigations of the naturalist Seetzen
   • Of Dr. Robinson
   • The expedition of Lieutenant Lynch
   • The investigations of De Saulcy
   • Of the Duc de Luynes. --- Lartet's report
   • Summary of the investigations of the nineteenth century. --- Ritter's verdict
4. THEOLOGICAL EFFORTS AT COMPROMISE. --- TRIUMPH OF THE SCIENTIFIC VIEW.
   • Attempts to reconcile scientific facts with the Dead Sea legends
   • Van de Velde's investigations of the Dead Sea region
   • Canon Tristram's
   • Mgr. Mislin's protests against the growing rationalism
   • The work of Schaff and Osborn
   • Acceptance of the scientific view by leaders in the Church
   • Dr. Geikie's ascription of the myths to the Arabs
   • Mgr. Haussmann de Wandelburg and.his rejection of the scientific view
   • Service of theologians to religion in accepting the conclusions of silence in this field

CHAPTER XIX. FROM LEVITICUS TO POLITICAL ECONOMY

1. ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF HOSTILITY TO LOANS AT INTEREST.
   • Universal belief in the sin of loaning money at interest
   • The taking of interest among the Greeks and Romans
   • Opposition of leaders of thought, especially Aristotle
   • Condemnation of the practice by the Old and New Testaments
   • By the Church fathers
   • In ecclesiastical and secular legislation
   • Exception sometimes made in behalf of the Jews
   • Hostility of the pulpit
   • Of the canon law
   • Evil results of the prohibition of loans at interest
   • Efforts to induce the Church to change her position
   • Theological evasions of the rule
   • Attitude of the Reformers toward the taking of interest
   • Struggle in England for recognition of the right to accept interest
   • Invention of a distinction between usury and interest
2. RETREAT OF THE CHURCH, PROTESTANT AND CATHOLIC.
   • Sir Robert Filmer's attack on the old doctrine
   • Retreat of the Protestant Church in Holland
   • In Germany and America
   • Difficulties in the way of compromise in the Catholic Church
   • Failure of such attempts in France
   • Theoretical condemnation of usury in Italy
   • Disregard of all restrictions in practice
   • Attempts of Escobar and Liguori to reconcile the taking of interest with the teachings of the Church
   • Montesquieu's attack on the old theory
   • Encyclical of Benedict XIV permitting the taking of interest
   • Similar decision of the Inquisition at Rome
   • Final retreat of the Catholic Church
   • Curious dealings of theology with public economy in other fields

CHAPTER XX. FROM THE DIVINE ORACLES TO THE HIGHER CRITICISM.

1. THE OLDER INTERPRETATION.
   • Character of the great sacred books of the world
   • General laws governing the development and influence of sacred literature. --- The law of its origin
   • Legends concerning the Septuagint
   • The law of wills and causes
   • The law of inerrancy
   • Hostility to the revision of King James's translation of the Bible
   • The law of unity
   • Working of these laws seen in the great rabbinical schools
   • The law of allegorical interpretation
   • Philo Judaeus
   • Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria
   • Occult significance of numbers
   • Origen
   • Hilary of Poitiers and Jerome
   • Augustine
   • Gregory the Great
   • Vain attempts to check the flood of allegorical interpretations
   • Bede.
   • Savonarola
   • Methods of modern criticism for the first time employed by Lorenzo Valla
   • Erasmus
   • Influence of the Reformation on the belief in the infallibility of the sacred books.
   • Luther and Melanchthon
   • Development of scholasticism in the Reformed Church
   • Catholic belief in the inspiration of the Vulgate
   • Opposition in Russia to the revision of the Slavonic Scriptures
   • Sir Isaac Newton as a commentator
   • Scriptural interpretation at the beginning of the eighteenth century
2. BEGINNINGS OF SCIENTIFIC INTERPRETATION.
   • Theological beliefs regarding the Pentateuch
   • The book of Genesis
   • Doubt thrown on the sacred theory by Aben Ezra
   • By Carlstadt and Maes
   • Influence of the discovery that the Isidorian Decretals were forgeries
   • That the writings ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite were serious
   • Hobbes and La Peyrere
   • Spinoza
   • Progress of biblical criticism in France.
   • Richard Simon
   • LeClerc
   • Bishop Lowth
   • Astruc
   • Eichhorn's application of the ``higher criticism'' to biblical research
   • Isenbiehl
   • Herder
   • Alexander Geddes
   • Opposition to the higher criticism in Germany
   • Hupfeld
   • Vatke and Reuss
   • Kuenen
   • Wellhausen
3. THE CONTINUED GROWTH OF SCIENTIFIC INTERPRETATION.
   • Progress of the higher criticism in Germany and Holland
   • Opposition to it in England
   • At the University of Oxford
   • Pusey
   • Bentley
   • Wolf
   • Niebuhr and Arnold
   • Milman
   • Thirlwall and Grote
   • The publication of Essays and Reviews, and the storm raised by book
4. THE CLOSING STRUGGLE.
   • Colenso's work on the Pentateuch
   • The persecution of him
   • Bishop Wilberforce's part in it
   • Dean Stanley's
   • Bishop Thirlwall's
   • Results of Colenso's work
   • Sanday's Bampton Lectures
   • Keble College and Lux Mundi
   • Progress of biblical criticism among the dissenters
   • In France. --- Renan
   • In the Roman Catholic Church
   • The encyclical letter of Pope Leo XIII
   • In America. --- Theodore Parker
   • Apparent strength of the old theory of inspiration
   • Real strength of the new movement
5. VICTORY OF THE SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY METHODS.
   • Confirmation of the conclusions of the higher criticism by Assyriology and Egyptology
   • Light thrown upon Hebrew religion by the translation of the sacred books of the East
   • The influence of Persian thought. --- The work of the Rev. Dr. Mills
   • The influence of Indian thought.
   • Light thrown by the study of Brahmanism and Buddhism
   • The work of Fathers Huc and Gabet
   • Discovery that Buddha himself had been canonized as a Christian saint
   • Similarity between the ideas and legends of Buddhism and those of Christianity
   • The application of the higher criticism to the New Testament
   • The English ``Revised Version'' of Studies on the formation of the canon of Scripture
   • Recognition of the laws governing its development
   • Change in the spirit of the controversy over the higher criticism
6. RECONSTRUCTIVE FORCE OF SCIENTIFIC CRITICISM.
   • Development of a scientific atmosphere during the last three centuries
   • Action of modern science in reconstruction of religious truth
   • Change wrought by it in the conception of a sacred literature
   • Of the Divine Power
   • Of man
   • Of the world at large
   • Of our Bible